What’s up with “Down”?

King Penguin with its chick showing penguin down feathers

What’s up with “Down”?

By Megan Spofford

Have you ever seen a young penguin that looks like it has completely different feathers than the rest of the members in its colony? Did you think, “What’s wrong with that one!?” Would you describe it as a “floof-ball”? If so, it would serve you to know that the floofiness factor comes from a special type of feather called “down” which is small, lightweight, and FLUFFY. For penguins, the down has a gray or brown coloration. In this article we will explore what makes this type of feather so special, and to show you that no, nothing is wrong with that penguin!

What are the types of down feathers in penguins?

In the grand scheme of down, you will find there are three different types. Regular body down is a layer of lighter feathers found situated underneath and around the external contour ones that we see with our naked eye, and all birds possess it. Down feathers are classified as afterfeathers and plumules. Natal down is the first type of feather a baby bird will get, and it covers the entire body. Powder down is created from feathers that disintegrate into an ashy, powdery substance to coat the feathers of a bird in order to keep it waterproof from rain or any other type of wet substance it may encounter. This type of down is found on birds who typically do not spend time going into water, so a penguin does not have powder down. (Instead, penguins and other water birds have a uropygial gland, also known as a preen gland, at the base of their tail that secretes an oil which is spread over their feathers during preening. This oil serves to waterproof their feathers in the same way powder down does for other birds.)

What types of feathers does a baby penguin have when it hatches?

Altricial or Precocial?

Penguins hatch from an egg with down covering their body, however they are not able to feed on their own or survive if they were to leave the nest/ brood pouch. This characteristic makes them “semi-altricial”. An altricial bird is one that is not able to regulate the temperature of their own body, usually due to being completely or partially featherless. They are also heavily reliant on parental care for feeding. The latter is a particular reason why penguins are not considered precocial. While similar to precocial birds in that they are both born with feathering, a precocial baby will be able to fend for themselves or follow their parents around and to learn how to hunt within the first few weeks of life. On the other hand, as an altricial baby gets older, the down feathering thickens, and they are able to self-thermoregulate, but natal down is not waterproof, so until the penguin’s body is mostly covered in contour feathers that can be waterproofed, the bird cannot go into the water or it could risk drowning and hypothermia. Since penguins hunt in the ocean, the babies must rely on their parents for food until eventually, the young bird is old enough to molt (when a penguin sheds feathers on its body and is restored with new ones) and the down is replaced with adult feathers.

What are the additional purposes of down feathers in penguins?

Down has a few different purposes; a couple of which we have already described when discussing powder and natal down. Looking at the third type of down, body down, an important purpose it serves is as an insulating agent for any bird of any age. This is especially important to penguins who live in the cold Antarctic regions! Additionally, body down helps with a penguin’s movement in water. This help comes in the form of bubbles of air that are trapped in the down feathers and ultimately give the penguin buoyancy or allow it to zip through the water quickly. Sometimes in these high speed instances, a “trail of smoke” can be seen behind the penguin, which is really just the expulsion of those air bubbles from their down.

Close up of penguin feathers

Down feathers for Human Application

Recognizing the special properties of feathers, humans have started research into creating a diving suit made of artificial feathers that would be more insulating and create less drag during underwater excursions. The fluffier down feather would be an important feature for both of those properties to exist. If this ever comes to fruition, we would be the silliest looking penguin there ever was!

Did you know you could get ‘down’ with penguins? Great info! Let us know what you think. And please help us continue to bring you this type of info by contributing to Penguins International.

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References:

https://web.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/Precocial_and_Altricial.html
https://www.beautyofbirds.com/birdoilgland.html
http://www.paulnoll.com/Oregon/Birds/feather-down.html
Jan R. E. Taylor, Thermal Insulation of the Down and Feathers of Pygoscelid Penguin Chicks and the Unique Properties of Penguin Feathers, The Auk, Volume 103, Issue 1, January 1986, Pages 160–168, https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/103.1.160
Starck, Johannes Matthias. Avian Growth and Development: Evolution within the Altricial-Precocial Spectrum. Oxford Univ. Press, 1998, books.google.com/books?id=A0HB7Mq4lOYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Williams, CL, Hagelin, JC, & Kooyman, GL. (2015). Hidden keys to survival: The type, density, pattern and functional role of emperor penguin body feathers. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 282(1817). http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.2033 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0xs4w8d0

Martin Franklin In Blog

Penguin Fight Club

Penguin Fight Club

By Martin Franklin

As readers of a certain age will know, both the first and second rules of Penguin Fight Club are, “You do not talk about Penguin Fight Club.”

That, however, would mean an especially short and (even more than normal) disappointing blog post.

I’m therefore going to bend the rules this once, not least as penguin combatants themselves often discard the rules of Fight Club, in particular, as Brad Pitt’s character so clearly articulates, “Fourth rule: Only two guys to a fight. Fifth rule: One fight at a time, fellas.”

Numerous members of the colony at ZSL London Zoo involved in a brief squabble (© Martin Franklin/ZSL)

Fictional penguins tend to bend the rules even further. For example, Batman’s old adversary “The Penguin” used technology to fight, frequently using modified high-tech umbrellas as weapons. Similarly, the clay-animated “Feathers McGraw” disguised himself as a chicken by pulling a rubber glove over his head, used robotic “Techno Trousers” to steal a diamond, and trapped Wallace and Gromit in a wardrobe at gunpoint.

Real penguins do, however, thankfully tend to stick to a fairly well documented and more traditional set of agonistic behaviours (i.e. social behaviours related to fighting)^{1, 2, 3}. These include:

1. Visual penguin displays from a short distance

Staring. This may be a “sideways” stare (where the head is held to one side, with one eye fixed on the opponent), or “alternate staring” (where the head is moved from side to side, and opponent stared at with each eye alternately). The whites of the eyes may be exposed.
Pointing. The bird points its closed bill directly towards the opponent (sometimes with neck-rotation). This is often used by birds on nests towards other birds that venture too close.
Gaping. The bird leans towards its opponent, with neck stretched and bill open.

Humboldt Penguin pointing, while standing (© Martin Franklin/ZSL)

Humboldt Penguin posturing (© Martin Franklin/ZSL)

Humboldt Penguin pointing, while incubating (and guarding) eggs (© Martin Franklin/ZSL)

2. Penguin Vocalisations (combined with visual displays)

Ecstatic displays (also called trumpeting). This can either be performed by an individual or in pairs (in which latter case it is termed a “mutual” ecstatic display). It involves stretching the neck upward and flippers outward, and making one or more loud donkey-like brays (potentially also rolling the head from side to side, depending on the species). Context, however, is everything, as although such displays often indicate ownership of (or claims to) territory (particularly nest sites), and are often seen in connection with fights, they can also be used to advertise availability for mating and communicate identity (e.g. to a partner elsewhere on the beach).
Growling/hissing. This is produced during exhalation and may accompany, for example, “pointing” (particularly in the crested penguins) or “lunging” (particularly in Little Penguins).

Humboldt Penguin ecstatic display (single bird) (© Martin Franklin/ZSL)

Humboldt Penguins mutual ecstatic display (1) (© Martin Franklin/ZSL)

Humboldt Penguins mutual ecstatic display (2) (© Martin Franklin/ZSL)

3. Physical/Close Contact

Charging/lunging. The bird runs or lunges towards its opponent.
Pecking. The closed bill is used to make a hard, speedy jab (often following “pointing”).
Bill vibrating. Two birds rapidly and repeatedly clap their bill against the other’s bill (think of “fencing”).
Biting. A pinching grip (particularly on the opponent’s neck or back), making use of the sharp hook on the end of the bill (which is otherwise primarily useful for grasping fish), sometimes in conjunction with pulling and twisting.
Beaking (also called the tête-à-tête posture). Two birds interlock their bills, then pull and twist to try to dislodge the opponent.
Beating. During “biting”/”beaking”, the bird rapidly and repeatedly slaps its opponent with a flipper. (The author can attest that this is surprisingly painful when a bird elects to perform this on a human.)

Of course, differences are observed in different species.

For example, Adélie Penguins seem also to use a “bill-to-axilla” threat posture³ (which looks a bit like they’re trying to smell their armpits). Incidentally, it has been suggested that, just like in the worst human soap-operas, the most aggressive fights between Adélie Penguins occur when a female returns to her nest after an extended absence, only to find another female has pair-bonded with her former mate⁴.

Little Penguins (in which it seems around 10% of aggressive interactions escalate to fighting) similarly possess a significant repertoire of distinct agonistic behaviours (22 in cave-nesting birds and 13 in burrow-nesting birds). Some of these actions are common to most penguins, as already described above. Others (as far as the author is aware) are yet to be widely reported upon in relation to other species. These include the “zig-zag approach”, the “breast butt” (think of an angry soccer player with his arms held rigidly by his sides squaring up to another) and a variety of nuanced flipper-spreads.⁵

So what should the reader do, should he/she find him/herself on the wrong end of any such agonistic penguin behaviour?

The author suggests (without any guarantees) that a generally sensible course of action might be to attempt the kind of “appeasement” or “displacement” behaviour deployed by penguins.

Therefore, increasing the distance between you and your aggressor is probably the best tactic. However (and the following is not meant seriously):

If stationary, try the “submissive hunch”, the “face-away”, or “look-around” (rotate your retracted neck), or start “preening” yourself (good luck with that one).
If walking through a colony, try “slender-walking” (with body stretched up, neck extended, flippers very slightly spread, and – if you can manage it – feathers sleeked down).
Alternatively, get yourself a warm coat and egg and join the male Emperor Penguins during breeding season: aggression is suppressed at this time, allowing them to huddle together for warmth³.

But please repeat nothing of this: after all, you know the first two rules of Penguin Fight Club.

Martin Franklin is a bird keeper at ZSL London Zoo, and works extensively with Humboldt Penguins. Any views or opinions expressed in this article are the author’s own, and do not necessarily represent those of ZSL.

Wasn’t this a great read about penguin social behaviors and “Fight Club?” Let us know what you learned, and if you’re going to watch any movies this week.

And please help us continue to bring you more information about penguins by donating to Penguins International. We greatly appreciate your support.

Continue to read more about penguins in some of our others blogs:

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References

1 Merritt, K. and King, N. E. (1987). Behavioral Sex Differences and Activity Patterns of Captive Humboldt Penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Zoo Biology, 6(2), 129-138.

2 Eggleton, P. and Siegfried, W. R. (1979). Displays of the Jackass Penguin. Ostrich, 50, 139-167.

3 Williams, T. D. (1995). The Penguins. Oxford University Press: New York.

4 De Roy, T., Jones, M. and Cornthwaite, J. (2013). Penguins: Their World, Their Ways. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.

5 Waas, J. R. (1990). ‘An Analysis of Communication during the Aggressive Interactions of Little Blue Penguins (Eudyptula minor)’. In David, L. S. and Darby, J. T. (eds). Penguin Biology. San Diego, California: Academic Press Inc. pp. 345-376.

Sian Liversage In Blog

Little (Blue) Penguins: Dive Shape Versus Coastline Health

Little Penguins: Dive Shape Versus Coastline Health

by Sian Liversage

Little Penguins, otherwise known as Kororā in Moari and commonly called Blue Penguins or Fairy Penguins, are found all around the coast of New Zealand. As their name suggests, they are the world’s smallest penguin weighing in at a mere 1kg and 25cm tall. They have a varied diet composed of small fish, squid, and crustacean species.

A Little Penguin near its burrow.

Primarily nocturnal on land, they can sometimes be found close to human settlements, in and around buildings, keeping the neighbours awake with their vocal displays. A recent article was published about a sushi store in Wellington who found out first hand just how noisy Little Penguins can be! The pair had decided to cross two main roads to nest underneath the sushi store. Perhaps it was the smell of the fresh fish that had enticed them in? Unfortunately for them though, they had chosen an awkward spot, so the Department of Conservation had to step in to relocate them. They have since decided to keep away from the area, and the hope is they have chosen a nest box located along the wharf instead.

Little Penguins Commonly Nest in Coastal Areas with Heavy Automobile Traffic

This pair were lucky not to get hit by any cars when they decided to cross main roads to nest. Sadly, many penguin colonies around the world are in decline, and thanks to an abundance of media stories in recent years just like the one mentioned, we are now more aware that our coastal areas are severely affected by humans due to an increase in shipping, fishing pressures, and coastal land development. This awareness hopefully will encourage councils and governments to either protect whole areas or at least provide wildlife-friendly areas that allow penguins to go about their natural behaviours.

Because Little Penguins depend on these coastal areas for food, they offer an easy and convenient way to study the health of marine ecosystems around New Zealand. And thanks to their predictable behaviour, where every night they will return to the same location, it makes it even easier for scientists to research them.

Little Penguins Exhibit Varied Hunting and Diving Behaviour

A study conducted by the Department of Conservation marine scientists monitored hunting trips of 8 Little Penguins using tiny electronic data loggers². These small devices are carefully attached to the penguins’ tail feathers for 2-4 days, where they record the length and depth of each dive. These scientists were able to find differences in Little Penguin diving techniques dependent on the environment in which the penguins lived. In areas with plenty of prey, “V-shaped” dives were made for short shallow hunts, “U-shaped” dives meant they had to work a bit harder searching the ocean bottom for food, and finally “W-shaped” dives meant it took them approximately a quarter of their time to hunt for their prey. This research showed that Little Penguins have a variety of diving techniques when hunting, which is dependent on the abundance of prey and their location. So, can it be assumed that studying the diving technique of Little Penguins can determine the health of the marine ecosystem in which the penguins live?

Fortunately, Little Penguins are Adaptable

To support this assumption, another recent study was conducted which also looked at diving behaviours and diets in Little Penguins off Motuara Island³. They concluded that the species appear to be highly adaptable to local environments, given the variability in diving behaviours as well as in prey. These results therefore suggest that some locations would naturally be more difficult to adapt to than others, reflected in longer and deeper dives (aka “W-shaped” dives). Therefore, these penguins may prove to be useful environmental monitors for changes in the specific sites in which the individuals live. And with the combination of long-term site monitoring and population trend monitoring, it could lead to enough evidence to show that the coastline requires more protection if the ecosystem changes for the worse.

Some studies have already proven that a variation or lack in availability of food can result in problems for the penguins⁴. Results showed delays to the start of breeding, a reduced likelihood that a second clutch will be produced, and a higher chance of chick mortality. In addition to this, researchers have found that adult and chick body conditions are poor, resulting in the chicks’ immunity being reduced and causing the fledging period to become longer. Therefore the parents must work harder for longer. Without the varied diet that they require, these issues could cause a population to decline in the future, so perhaps by continuing the research into penguin diving techniques around the New Zealand coastlines, we can determine whether the area requires environmental protection or not.

Did you learn something new about Little Penguins by reading this? Please let us know. We also more than appreciate any support you can provide to help us continue bringing you information about penguins by donating to Penguins International.

Want to learn more about penguins? Read some of our other blogs:

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References:

RNZ News. 2019. Web: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/394557/little-blue-penguins-move-on-from-sushi-shop
Department of Conservation Marine Ecosystems Team, Science and Policy. 2015.
Chilvers L. 2019. Variability of little blue penguin diving behaviour across New Zealnad. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, Vol. 43, No. 2, 2019
Dann P, Norman FI, Cullen JM, Neira FJ, Chiaradia A 2000. Mortality and breeding failure of little penguins, Eudyptula minor, in Victoria, 1995–1996 following a widespread mortality of Pilchard Sardinops sagax. Marine & Freshwater Research 51: 355–362.

Jemma Dias In Blog

Measuring Penguin Welfare and Stress

by Jemma Dias

Animal welfare has been defined by Broom (1986) as “an animal’s physical and mental state with regards to its ability to cope with its environment”. Animal welfare is a relatively new science, focussing on the quality of our care for captive animals. It is also considered to be an extremely important topic, not only based on our moral responsibility to provide appropriate care for the animals we chose to keep, but also to enhance production, be it for profit or conservation. There is a wealth of factors which affect an animal’s welfare, such as social interaction, diet and overall health. As a result, welfare can fluctuate daily, even hourly, and, therefore, should be monitored regularly. Results from this should lead to alternations in husbandry practices with the aim to improve animal welfare. Welfare assessment can also be applied to wild colonies to assess the influence of environmental change, such as tourism or climate change.

Types of welfare monitoring in penguins (and other animals)

Welfare monitoring for any species can be undertaken in two ways. The first uses behavioural measurements. This requires behavioural observations, as well as an understanding of the individual’s “usual” behaviours. For instance, an increase in abnormal behaviours, such as stereotypes, can indicate significant stress.

Indicators of stress in captive penguins

Other behavioural indicators of stress may include:

a reduction in activity and subsequent increase in time spent resting
an increase in aggressive behaviours and decrease in affiliative behaviours towards conspecifics and keeping staff
poor appetite, but also anticipation of feeding events
alterations in grooming behaviours, such as excessive grooming
increased vigilance or avoidance of stressful stimulus
poor reproductive success, limited interest in mating opportunities and infanticide in some species
unequal enclosure utilisation limited to a few or even one area of the enclosure, often the area in which food is provided

In penguins, species specific behaviours such as diving, incubating and pair-bonding may also be relevant to welfare assessment. It should also be noted that not all instances of these behaviours should be considered indicative of stress. For instance, occurrences of behaviours, such as grooming, at a particular time of day may be due to weather conditions. Assessment should consider the proportion of time spent performing the behaviour over a full 24-hour period to best understand the cause of a behaviour.

Whilst excessive grooming can be a sign of poor welfare, this Humboldt Penguin at ZSL London Zoo was seen to take breaks between preening.

This Little Penguin at Perth Zoo exhibiting vigilance behaviours on behalf of the rest of the group, who were either preening or swimming at the time.

Sherwen et al. (2015) monitored the effect of zoo visitors on the welfare of 25 Little Penguins using behavioural measures. The penguins’ behaviour was studied in two randomly imposed conditions: enclosure closed to visitors and enclosure open to visitors. The investigation found an increase in intra-group aggression and vigilance in the presence of zoo visitors. The penguins spent a greater period of time positioned behind structural features in the enclosure and chose to stand at a greater distance from viewing areas with visitors present. These results suggest that visitors acted as a stressor for the penguins, likely fear-provoking, indicating welfare is affected by visitors.

Stress in penguins and other birds can be measured in hormones

The results from behavioural welfare assessments can be validated by physiological measures of welfare. The most significant physiological measure of welfare is the presence of stress hormones. Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol and corticosterone, are released into the blood during a stress response. Monitoring the levels of stress hormones can show the occurrence of stress, as well as supporting theories on the cause of stress and instances of stress related behaviour.

Glucocorticoids can be extracted from blood, faeces and saliva samples. Although blood samples are considered to be the most reliable source of glucocorticoids, obtaining them can be invasive and can act as a source of stress, skewing results. Ozella et al. (2017) used the non-invasive method of assessing faecal glucocorticoids to examine physiological stress caused to African Penguins in the presence of visitors, although they did not find an influence of this on faecal glucocorticoids.

Other types of measurements of stress in penguins

Other physiological measures of stress include body-condition scoring and evaluation of recurring health issues and poor recovery times, as well as monitoring of the internal environment. Culik et al. (1990) investigated the effect of disturbance on the heart rate and behaviour of nine incubating Adélie Penguins with the use of safety-pin electrode ECG and implantable radio-transmitters. Minimal resting heart rate was found to be 86 bpm (beats per minute) which rose to 127 bpm following disturbance by humans, and 145 bpm in the presence of a helicopter. Though the study sample was a wild group, the rise in heart rate, indicating stress, can be applied to captive groups. On the other hand, the study also found evidence of habituation to human presence in a hand-reared chick. This suggests that captive penguins can also experience habituation to human-related stress.

Welfare assessment on penguins requires wider publication. However, trial of behavioural and physiological measures will allow keepers of captive populations to discover the most appropriate methods for their group and individual penguins.

Animals can experience a lot of stress and react is various ways. It’s incredible. Please help us continue to bring you this type of information by donating to Penguins International.

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References

Culik B., Adelung D., & Woakes A.J. (1990). The Effect of Disturbance on the Heart Rate and Behaviour of Adélie Penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) During the Breeding Season. In: Kerry K.R., Hempel G. (eds) Antarctic Ecosystems. Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg

Ozella, L., Anfossi, L., Di Nardo, F., & Pessani, D. (2017). Effect of weather conditions and presence of visitors on adrenocortical activity in captive African penguins (Spheniscus demersus). General and Comparative Endocrinology, 242, 49-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2015.12.002

Sherwen, S. L., Magrath, M. J. L., Butler, K. L., & Hemsworth, P. H. (2015). Little penguins, Eudyptula minor, show increased avoidance, aggression and vigilance in response to zoo visitors. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 168, 71-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2015.04.007

Megan Spofford In Blog

Penguin Architecture – What does a penguin nest look like?

Penguin Architecture – What does a penguin nest look like?

By Megan Spofford

One of the most fascinating characteristics of birds is the fact that they are egg-layers, and because of this, they must create highly specialized shelters to house them — nests. Amongst the penguin species, the variation in nesting materials is almost as diverse as the penguins themselves. Materials available vary based on habitat, but all eighteen species have developed specialized nests to protect their eggs in creative ways.

Types of Penguin Nests

Scrape nests

A scrape nest is essentially an indentation in the ground that has been scraped out by the nails of the penguin that created it. The species that create this type of nest are Snares, Erect-crested, Rockhoppers, Gentoos and Yellow-eyed Penguins. Within a scrape nest, the penguin will add things such as rocks, sticks, vegetation, bone, feathers, etc. — pretty much anything it can grab with its mouth — to create a throne worthy of jealousy. Interestingly, Yellow-eyed Penguins go out of their way to build nests that are not within sight of another penguin (probably to avoid a confrontation over territory). However, nearly all of the other penguin species live in breeding colonies that have nesting sites in close proximity to each other. Erect-crested Penguins, Macaronis and Northern and Southern Rockhoppers additionally utilize tussocks, which are thick and long isolated bushels of grass that protect their eggs.

Mounds or flat ground

While those whole build scrape nests do use various items to fill their shelter with items that include rocks and pebbles, there are species that use only rocks and pebbles without scraping a depression first. These species of penguins build nests on top of rocks and pebbles by gathering and setting them out in an array or stacking them. Adelie, Chinstrap and Royal Penguins almost exclusively build their nests on the rocky shores they inhabit, while Macaroni and Gentoo Penguins utilize this method in some regions. In some cases, especially with Gentoos and Adelies, individuals will steal materials from each others’ nests to add to their own, and spark territory wars in the process. Macaroni Penguins (who only come to shore for breeding purposes) create mounds as well as use tussocks.

Gentoo Penguins adding vegetation to their scrape nest.

African Penguin nest boxes placed by African Penguin & Seabird Sanctuary, donated by GreenRscreed.
Photo Source: GreenRscreed

Burrows

Burrows are the most utilized nest by penguins as six of the eighteen penguins use them, but they vary in structure based on what is available. Penguins will use the scraping technique to form a new burrow, but the difference between the two is that the burrow has a covered top, so the entire structure resembles Bag End from The Hobbit, without the door.

Penguins can also utilize natural burrows such as caves, cracks, and holes, or even under tree branches in the case of Fiordland Penguins, who nest in vegetation of the rainforest of New Zealand. Little Penguin burrows are created solely by the males. Magellanic Penguins dig burrows up to 1 meter deep in soil or guano beds. Galapagos Penguins, who nest the farthest north of all the species, do so in between dried lava formations decorated with twigs and leaves; that is if they nest at all. This species is environmentally cued to breed only if cool water temperatures are below 25 degrees Celsius.

The final three species: African and Humboldt Penguins are also burrowers, but they use guano (bird poop!) as their major building tool. They fill cracks and holes in the ground with guano which can build up after many years, and provide great space for burrowing. Unfortunately, it is also nutrient dense and has been harvested by humans as a fertilizer. In doing so, the availability of valuable burrowing area for penguins is severely reduced, and they are forced to lay eggs in more vulnerable locations. Guano harvesting is a contributing factor to the endangered status of the African Penguin, and has led to substantially decreasing numbers in Humboldt Penguins as well. Because of this, scientists have started placing artificial nests made from various durable materials on the islands they inhabit to increase the rate of hatching.

The “no-nesters”

While most penguins have reason to build a nest, there are two species of penguin that are “no-nesters”. The Emperor and King Penguins nestle their eggs on their feet and keep the egg warm by a brood pouch, a patch of bare skin,on the belly of the penguin to protect their eggs from the harsh elements of the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic environments in which they live.

Each type of nest, or lack thereof, is a fascinating natural piece of architecture. If you were a penguin and had all the resources available for each type of nest, which would you choose?

A King Penguin doesn’t use a nest. It incubates its egg on top of its feet.

Isn’t it amazing how different species of the same bird do things so differently? Let us know what you think about all this. We love being able to provide you with this information and can’t do it without your support. Please consider donating to Penguins International so we continue to do so.

And read more about penguins in some of our other blogs:

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References:

http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/
https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/birds/penguins/Fiordland_crested_penguin.html
https://www.britannica.com/animal/Fiordland-penguin
https://www.sanparks.org/parks/table_mountain/conservation/penguins/penguin_nests.php
Carlson, A. L. and J. S. Townsdin (2012). Galapagos Penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus), version 1.0. In Neotropical Birds Online (T. S. Schulenberg, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/nb.galpen1.01

October 2019